This article treats on the weakly described process which is irregular phonetic development of words. The scale of the process is unknown, however it seems that the more frequently is the using of a given word the more is its chance for irregular changing due to frequency. Besides, especially frequent irregularities can be observed among borrowings.
Some of the data below are thought to be certain, others are under discussion. In some instances crossing of originally different roots might have happened (see e.g. ³abêd¼). Hypothetic reconstructed forms are given. They should have existed in the proto-language if the word had developed regularly. It is known almost for sure that only one of such reconstructions can present a really existing form, however we rarely know which of them is it.
bia³y
- Pol. bia³y ‘white’ < PS bìlъjь, Skr. bhālam ‘brightness, shine’ (maybe related to bhāti ‘to shine’), Lith. bolúoti ‘be white’, OIc. bál ‘fire’ < IE *bhēlHo-, *bhōlH-;
- Lith. báltas ‘white’ (cf. Pol. b³oto ‘mud’), balà ‘bog, marsh’, Gr. phalós ‘white’ < IE *bhəlH-;
- Gr. alphós ‘white mark’, Lat. albus ‘white’, Umbr. alfu ‘white (f)’, Engl. elf < PG *alb- < IE *əlbho-;
- perhaps also Pol. lebioda and ³oboda ‘pigweed, Chenopodium album’ < PS *elbeda, *olboda, Gr. álphi, álphiton ‘barley, Hordeum sp.’, Alb. elp, elbi ‘t.s.’ < IE *əlbh-;
- Lith. balánda ‘pigweed’ < IE *bholonH-;
- see also ³abêd¼.
|
ch³op
- Pol. ch³op ‘peasant, man’, Russ. xolóp ‘villein’, OCS xlapъ ‘slave, serf, servant’ < IE *kHolHp-;
- Lith. ¹élpti, ¹elpiù ‘to help’, pa¹alpà ‘help’ < IE *ḱelHp-, *ḱolHp-;
- Eng. help, goc. hilpan < IE *kelb-.
|
ch³ód
- Pol. ch³ód ‘coldness’, Russ. xólod, perhaps Dutch hal ‘frozen ground’ < IE *kHoldh-;
- Lith. ¹áldyti ‘freeze’ < IE *ḱolHdh-;
- Pol. s³ota ‘bad (rainy) weather’, Lith. ¹áltas ‘cold’, ¹al͂tis ‘frost’, ¹álti, ¹±̃lа ‘get frozen’, Latv. sal̂ts ‘cold’, Av. sarəta-, ModPers. serd, Oss. sald ‘frost’ < IE *ḱolHt- (cf. OCS slana ‘ice’);
- Eng. cold, Goth. kalds, Lat. gelidus < IE *gelHdh-;
- Skr. hlādate ‘he refreshes himself’ < IE *ghelHd-;
- Skr. jаḍаs ‘cold, stiffened’ < IE *geldo-.
|
*dgʷel-
- Gr. bdélla ‘leech’ < IE *dgʷel-;
- Lat. hirūdo < IE *dgʷir-;
- Germ. Egel, OE igel, Swed. igel < PG *egal- < IE *eghol-;
- ModLG zullen ‘to suck a soother’, zulp ‘rag to suck’, tulken ‘to suck, to gulp’, Dutch tullen ‘to soak’ < IE *dul-;
- Gr. neogillós ‘newly sucking’, Gíllos < IE *gil-;
- Lith. ¾į̃sti (¾iñda, ¾iñdō) ‘to suck’, IE *ǵeid- (two voiced stops!);
- Av. x¹vīd- ‘milk’, Lith. svíestas ‘butter’ < IE *ksweid-;
- Toch. tsuk- ‘to drink’, Skr. dogdhi ‘he milks’, dogha ‘milkman’ < IE *dheugh-;
- Lith. dėlė ‘leech’ < *dhēl-;
- perh. Pol. doiæ ‘to milk’, Skr. dhayati ‘he sucks’, Lat. fēlāre ‘suck’ < IE *dhēi-;
- goc. daddjan ‘suck’ < IE *dhodhi-.
|
dziewierz
- Pol. dziewierz ‘husband’s brother’, Lith. dieverìs, Skr. devár-, Gr. dāḗr < IE *daiwer-, *dāiwer-;
- Arm. taigr < IE *daigher-;
- OE tācor, OHG zeihhur < IE *daiger-;
- Lat. lēvir < IE *lēwir- (*laiwir-?).
|
d¼wiêk
- Pol. dzwon ‘bell’, d¼wiêk ‘sound’, Russ. zvuk ‘sound’, Alb. zëh ‘voice’, Arm. jain, Gr. phōnḗ, Toch. kaṃ ‘melody’ < IE *ǵhwon-, *ǵhwōn-, *ǵhwen-ko-, *ǵhwon-ko-;
- Lat. sonus ‘sound’, Skr. svanás, OIr. senn- ‘play music’, OE swinsian ‘sing’, OHG, Eng. swan < IE *swono-.
|
gabaæ
- Skr. gábhasti- ‘hand’, Lith. gãbana ‘armful’, gõbis ‘greed’, gebė́ti ‘be ready’, Lat. habēre ‘have’, Osk. haf- ‘t.s.’, OIr. gaibid ‘(s)he takes, seizes’, Goth. gabeigs ‘rich’, Eng. give < IE *ghebh-, *ghobh-, *ghōbh-;
- OPol. gabaæ ‘to attack’, Pol. nagabywaæ ‘to molest, to solicit’, Lith. góbti ‘take possession of sth.’, Umbr. hab- ‘have’, Lat. habēre ‘have’, habilis ‘skilful’ < IE *ghəb-;
- Osk. hip- ‘have’, Pol. gapiæ siê ‘stare’, Germ. gaffen ‘t.s.’ < IE *ghēp-, *ghop-, *ghōp-;
- OE cefes ‘concubine’, Germ. Kebse ‘t.s.’, ON kefser ‘prisoner of war’ < IE *gəbh-;
- Russ. zabota ‘care’, zabotit′sja ‘to care’, MLG kapēn ‘stare’, Engl. keep < PG *kōpj- ‘keep, observe, look after’ < IE *ǵāb-;
- Bret. kavout ‘have’, Welsh caffael ‘attainment’ < IE *kəbh-;
- Lat. capere ‘catch’, Gr. kṓpē ‘grasp’, Skr. kapaṭī ‘armfull’, Ir. cúan ‘haven’, Eng. haven, Alb. kam ‘I have’, OE hæft ‘prisoner of war’, Goth. hafjan ‘heave’, Eng. heave, have < PG *xabē- < IE *kap-, *kəp-;
- Russ. xabit′ ‘seize’, ON haptr ‘prisoner of war’, Dutch happen ‘catch’, Germ. happig ‘greedy’, Eng. hap, happy, happen < IE *kHab-;
- Pol. chapaæ ‘catch’, Russ. xopit′, OPol. chopiæ ‘catch, embrace’, Arm. xaphanem ‘I disturb’ < IE *kHapH-, *kHāpH-;
- Lat. apīscī ‘attain’, Skr. āpnōti ‘he attains’, Hitt. appanzi ‘they take’ < IE *Hap-, *Həp-,
- Gr. háptō ‘I bind, I fix’, háphē ‘touch’, Arm. aph ‘empty hand’ < IE *HəpH-.
|
gi±æ
- Gr. hybóomai ‘become humpbacked’ < IE *ub-;
- Gr. hỹbos ‘hump of a camel’, hȳbós ‘humpbacked’, hȳbázō ‘stoop forward and vomit’ < IE *ūb-;
- Av. xumba ‘jug, crock; hollow’ < IE *khumb(h)-;
- Lat. cūpa ‘barrel, keg, vat’ < IE *kūp-;
- Gr. kýbda ‘with the head forwards’, kýbēbos ‘stooping with the head’, kybistáō ‘tumble head foremost’, kýbos ‘large clay vase’, Lat. cubitum ‘elbow’, cubāre ‘bend, lie’, Engl. hip, Pol. kub, kubek ‘mug, tumbler’ < IE *kub-, *koub-;
- Skr. kumba- ‘thick end of a bone’, Gr. kýmbē ‘bowl, cup, gouged boat’, Lat. cumba ‘boat’, Engl. hump < IE *kumb-;
- Gr. kýptō, perf. kékypha ‘bend, lean’, Ved. kubhrá- ‘humpbacked cattle’ < IE *kubh-;
- Gr. kȳphós ‘hunchbacked’, kỹphos, kȳ́phōsis ‘hump, hunch’ < IE *kūbh-;
- Skr. kumbhá- ‘jug’ < IE *kumbh-;
- OE geap ‘crooked’ < IE *ghub-;
- Latv. gubt ‘bend, become bent’, Pol. gi±æ (instead of gn±æ < *gъnǫti < *gъbnǫti) < IE *ghubh-;
- OPol. gibaæ ‘bend; swing, rock’, Pol. gin±æ (*gybnǫti) ‘perish, fall, vanish, disappear’ < IE *ghūbh-;
- Skr. kṣúbhayati, kṣóbhate ‘shake, rock’ < IE *kseubh-, *ksubh-;
- Pol. chybotaæ, OPol chybaæ ‘shake, rock, wobble, move’, Pol. chybiæ ‘miss the aim’, chyba ‘perhaps’ < IE *ksūbh- (or *khūbh-).
|
g³êboki
- Gr. glyphō ‘carve, bore, channel’, Lat. glūbō ‘peel’, Eng. cleave, OHG klioban, klūbōn, OCz. hlboký ‘deep’ < IE *gleubh-, *gloubh-, *glubh-;
- Ukr. hlybókyj ‘deep’, Russ. glýboko ‘deeply’ < IE *glūbh- (*glumbh-);
- OCS glǫbokъ ‘deep’, Russ. glubókij, Pol. g³êboki, Skr. jr̥mbhate ‘gape emptily’ < IE *glombh-, *gl̥mbh-;
- LSorb. g³umoki ‘deep’ < IE *gloum-;
- Skr. gambhirá- ‘deep’ < IE *gombh-;
- Lith. gilùs ‘deep’ < IE *gĕlu-;
- Lith. gelmė͂ ‘a deep’ < IE *gelm-;
- Pol. ¿³ób ‘gully; crib, manger’, Russ. ¾ólob < IE *gelbh-;
- further connections possible, see gʷelbh-, ¿o³±dek.
|
g³os
- Hitt. kalle¹ta ‘he shouted’, Lat. calāre ‘to summon, announce’, celeber ‘frequented, loud, clear’, Gr. kaléō ‘I call’, kalḗtōr ‘herald’, OHG hellan ‘to resound’, hlamōn ‘to shout’, Germ. Hall ‘sound’, Skr. kala- ‘silently voiced’, uṣā-kala-, kalādhika-, kalāvika- ‘cock’, kala-víŋka- ‘sparrow’, Lith. kalbà ‘language, speech’ < IE *kelH-, *kĕlH-, *kolH-, *kl̥H-;
- OIcel. skjalla ‘to shout’, skǫll ‘scoff, noise’, skellr ‘sound, rumble’, skal ‘alert’, skjal ‘talk’, OE sciellan ‘to shout’, OHG scellan, Germ. Schall ‘sound’, OFris. skelda ‘to scold’, Eng. scold, Germ. schelten, Lith. skélbti, skélbiu ‘to gossip’ < IE *skelH-, *skolH-;
- OIcel. hvellr ‘clearly sounded’, Gr. kýlla ‘pup’, Lith. kãlė, kalė̃ ‘chicken’, Alb. këlüsh ‘young animal, esp. dog’, MIr. cuilén (< *koli-gno-), Wel. colwyn, OCorn. coloin, Bret. kolen ‘pup’ < IE *kʷelH-, *kʷolH-;
- OIcel. skval ‘chatter, wordstream’, skvala ‘to speak loudly, to call’, skvaldr ‘loud talking’, Gr. skýlaks ‘pup, young animal’, Lith. skalìkas ‘hunter dog used for battue’, skãlyti ‘to bark’, Pol. dial. skoliæ, skuliæ ‘to whimper’ < IE *skʷelH-, *skʷolH-;
- Gr. kalláion ‘cock’s comb’, OIr. cailech ‘cock’ (< *kaljākos), Ogham gen. caliācī, Wel. ceiliog, Latv. kaļôt ‘to summon’ < IE *kolj-;
- OCS klakolъ, Russ. kólokol ‘bell’ < IE *kolkol-;
- Lith. kañkalas ‘bell-flower’, Pol. k±kol ‘corn cockle’ < IE *konkol-;
- Lat. clārus ‘loud, clear’, OE hlōwan ‘to low, to roar’, hlētan ‘to hem’ < IE *kleH-;
- Lat. clāmāre ‘to shout’, Pol. klaskaæ ‘to clap’ (< *klìskati) < IE *kleH-;
- OE hlimman ‘to sound, to resound’, hlimme ‘fast current’, hlemm ‘shout’, OHG hlamōn ‘to sough’ < IE *klem-, *klom-;
- Gr. klónos ‘battle turmoil’, OE hlynn ‘shout; fast current’, hlynnan, hlynian, hlynsian ‘to shout’, hlynrian ‘to thunder’, gehlyn ‘scream’, Skr. krándati ‘he shouts’, Latv. klentēt ‘to curse’, OCS klêti, klьnǫ ‘to curse, to swear’, Pol. kl±æ, klnie < IE *klen-, *klĕn-, *klon- (mixed with *klin- ‘to bend, to bow, to stoop’);
- Lat. clangor ‘sound, rattle’, Gr. klaggḗ < IE *klang-;
- Pol. che³piæ siê ‘to boast’ (< *xъlpiti sê) < IE *kHel-p-;
- Pol. che³biæ siê ‘to boast’, chluba ‘pride, credit’ < IE *kHel-bh-;
- Pol. chrobry ‘courageous, gallant’ (< *xorbrъ) < IE *kHor-bh-;
- Wel. galw ‘to shout, to summon’, MBret. galu ‘call, appeal’ (< *gol-w-); MIr. gall ‘fame, glory’ (< *gol-n-); Skr. gargara- ‘a certain musical instrument’, OCS glagolъ ‘word’, glagolati ‘speak’, Russ. gologólit ‘to chatter’ (<*gol-gol-); MHG kalzen, kelzen ‘to gossip, to chatter’; OFris. kaltia ‘speak’ (< *gol-d-); Lat. gallus ‘cock’, ON kall ‘calling’, kalls ‘stirring, instigating’, OE callian ‘call’, Eng. call, OHG kallōn ‘to gossip’, Osset. ɣalas ‘voice’, Lith. gal͂sas ‘sound, echo’, Pol. g³os ‘voice’ (< *gol-dh-s-) < IE *gol-;
- ON klapp ‘crash’, OHG klapf ‘rumour, rumble, hit, shock’ < IE *gla-b-;
- OE clatrian ‘to clatter’, Germ. Klatz ‘blot’ < IE *gla-d-;
- Gr. glázō ‘I let the song sound’, ON klaka ‘to twitter’, klakkr ‘ink-stain, clod, cloud’, OE clacu ‘insult’, Eng. clack, Germ. Klecks ‘ink-stain’ < IE *gla-g-;
- OHG klinkan ‘to sound’, Eng. clink, Swed. klinka ‘to bell, to clank’ < IE *gleng-;
- Skr. garhati ‘he complains, he condemns’, garhā ‘reprimand’, gr̥hú- ‘beggar’, Av. gǝrǝzaiti ‘he complains’, Osset. ɣärzun ‘to groan’; OHG klaga ‘complaint’, klagōn ‘to complain’, Germ. Klage, klagen, MIr. glām ‘shout, curse’ (< *glagh-smā) < IE *galgh-, *gl̥gh-, *glagh-;
- OHG klingan ‘to sound’, Germ. klingen < IE *glengh-;
- Lith. girdė́ti ‘hear’, gar͂sas ‘sound; glory, fame’ < IE *ger-dh-, *gor-dh-;
- OIcel. gjalla ‘to resound’, galdr ‘singing, incantation’, Eng. yell, Germ. gellen ‘to resound’, OE galan ‘to sing, to yell’, Got. gōljan ‘to say hello’, Russ. galit′sja ‘to mock’, dial. galúcha, gal′ ‘laughter’ (< *ghōl-), Skr. gharghara- ‘strumming; alert’ (< *ghol-ghol-), OE gielpan ‘to boast’, MHG gelpfen, gelfen (< *ghel-b-), OHG gelbōn ‘to deceive’, Skr. pragalbha- ‘firm, resolute, brave’, Lith. gul̃binti ‘to praise’ (< *ghel-bh-), OHG galm ‘alert’ (< *ghol-m-), Icel. gelta ‘to bark’, OHG gelzōn ‘to shout’ (< *ghel-d-) < IE *ghel-, *ghol-, *ghōl-;
- MHG glīen ‘to shout’ < IE *ghleH-;
- Lett. valoda ‘speech, language’, OCS volati ‘to call’, Pol. wo³aæ < IE *wol-.
|
*ǵneib-
- Lith. gnī́bti ‘pinch’, gnaĩbis ‘a pinch’ < IE *gneib-;
- Eng. knife, Germ. kneifen ‘pinch’ < IE *gneibh-,
- Lith. ¾nī́bti ‘peck, pinch’, Latv. zniêbt ‘press hard, throttle’, ¾ņaîbît ‘press, pinch’ < IE *ǵneib-;
- Lith. kneĩbti ‘collect, rake up, tinker, stick’ < IE *kneibh-;
- ON hnīpa ‘hang down one’s head, be sad’, OE hnipian ‘let one’s head hang down, bend, be sad, be sleepy’, Lith. knìbti ‘sink’, Latv. kniêbt ‘pinch’ < IE *kneib-;
- Latv. knĩpêt ‘pinch’ < IE *kneip-;
- Lith. ¹nĩpti ‘pinch’, Latv. ¹ņiêpt ‘pinch’ < IE *ḱneip-;
- Latv. ¹ņaîbît, ¹ņiêbt ‘pull a wry face’ < IE *ḱneib-.
|
gniazdo
- Pol. gniazdo ‘nest’, OCS gnìzdo < IE *g(h)noizdo-;
- Lith. lìzdas < IE *lizdo-;
- Eng. nest, Lat. nīdus, Skr. nīḍa- < IE *nizdo-.
|
gnida
- Pol. gnida ‘nit’, Latv. gnīda, ON gnit, OSwed. gnether, Swed. gnet, Dan. gnid < IE *ghnid-;
- Lith. glìnda < IE *ghlindā;
- Lat. lēns, gen. lendis < IE *ghlend-;
- Eng. nit, OE hnitu, Germ. Niss, Nisse < IE *knid-.
|
gród
- Pol. gród ‘fenced city’, ogród ‘garden’, ogrodzenie ‘fence, enclosure’, ¿erd¼ ‘pole’, Russ. górod ‘town’, Lith. gar̃das ‘fence, enclosure’, Alb. garth, gardh ‘fence’, Skr. gr̥hás ‘house, habitation, home’, Av. gərəða- ‘den, homestead’, Toch. B kercci, kerciye ‘palace’, Phryg. Manegordum ‘Manes’s town’, Goth. gards ‘house’, OIc. gerði ‘fenced plot of ground’, Eng. yard, Gr. korthílai ‘threads, conglomerations, mounds’ < IE *ghordh-, *gherdh-;
- Russ. zoród ‘hayrick, fenced place for a hayrick’, Lith. ¾árdas ‘fenced place for drying flax or peas’, ¾ar̃dis ‘field-patch’, Pruss. sardis ‘fence’, Phryg. Manezordum ‘Manes’s town’ < IE *ǵhorHdh-;
- Lat. hortus ‘garden’, Gr. khórtos ‘fenced place’, Hitt. gurta ‘citadel, acropolis’ < IE *ghort-;
- perhaps also OE targe, OHG zarga ‘fence, enclosure’, Germ. Zarge ‘door-frame’, PG *targō-, *targōn- ‘binding, enclosure, shield’, Lith. dar̃¾as ‘garden’ < IE *dorǵh-;
- see also targ.
|
*gʷelbh-
- Gr. délear ‘bait’ < IE *gʷelew-;
- Skr. gárbha- ‘uterus, womb’, Av. garəwa-, Gr. delphýs < IE *gʷelbh-;
- Lat. vulva, volva ‘womb’ < IE *gʷolw-;
- Lat. volba ‘womb’ < IE *gʷolbh-;
- Lat. bulba ‘womb’ < IE *bolbh-;
- Eng. womb, Germ. Wamme < IE *wombh-;
- OHG kilbur ‘female lamb’, OE cilforlamb, Eng. calf, Germ. Kalb < IE *gelbh-,*golbh-;
- further connections possible, see g³êboki, ¿o³±dek.
|
jaskó³ka
- Pol. jaskó³ka ‘swallow’, Russ. lastoèka, cf. above, perh. IE *lāst-;
- Lith. lak¹tingala ‘nightingale’ (after lakstaũ, lakstýti ‘fly’?);
- Lat. luscinia ‘nightingale’ < IE *luskaniā, perh. instead of *nokt-kaniā, cf. above;
- Eng. nightingale ‘nightingale’ (after OE galan ‘to sing, to yell’) < IE *nokt-kalia;
- Gr. khelīdṓn, khelidwṓn ‘swallow’ < IE *ǵhelidw-;
- Gr. kíkhlē ‘thrush’ < IE *ǵhi-ǵhel-;
- Lat. hirundo ‘swallow’ < IE *ǵhirund-, cf. above;
- Alb. dallëndyshe < IE *ǵhol-ont-;
- perh. Lith. kreg¾dė͂, krẽg¾dė < IE *kredǵh-;
- Eng. -gale in nightingale, Germ. Nachtigall, Mid.Ir. gelbund ‘sparrow’, Lith. lak¹tingala ‘nightingale’ < IE *ǵhol-, *ǵhel-;
- indirect connection to Eng. swallow, Dutch zwaluw, OHG swalawa, Germ. Schwalbe, ON svala ‘swallow’ < IE *swolu- ‘yellow-grey’ (with *ǵhelu- ‘yellow’ changed);
- Slavic *solvьjь ‘nightingale’, Pol. s³owik, Pruss. salowis, cf. OHG salo, salawēr ‘dark, muddy’, Eng. sallow < IE *solu-, *solōu-;
- Gr. koloiós ‘jackdaw’ < IE *ḱol-;
- Celt. alauda ‘lark’ (→ Lat.) < IE *alaud-, cf. above;
- Vulg. Lat. *vannellum ‘lapwing’ (→ Fr. vanneau), connected to Ir. fáinle, fáinleog ‘swallow; swift’, OIr. fannall, Scott. fainleag, Welsh gwennol, Bret. gwennili < IE *Hwet- ? – cf. Gr. aetma ‘flame’ (?), áēma ‘blowing’, Lat. vannus ‘fan’;
- Ir. áinle, áinleog with irregular loss of f-.
|
jaszczur
- Pol. jaszczur ‘reptile, lizard, salamander’, jaszczurka ‘lizard’, OPruss. estureito < IE *āskeur-;
- Russ. ja¹èer < IE *āsker-;
- Latv. ¹ķir̃gata, ¹ķìrgaîlis, Alb. hardhëlë < IE *skr̥g-, *skerǵ-;
- Lat. lacerta < IE *dlaker-, cf. above;
- Gr. drákōn ‘dragon, snake’ < IE *drakon-;
- Gr. askarís ‘worm, larva’ < IE *askarid-;
- Gr. Hes. skarís ‘worm’ < IE *skarid-;
- Skr. ¶alabha- ‘locust’ < IE *ḱolobh-;
- Lith. skėrỹs < IE *skēri-;
- Lat. locusta < IE *dlokust-, cf. above.
|
*jem-
- Latv. jumis, juma, jume ‘two joint things’ < IE *jumi-, *jumā-;
- Skr. yamá- ‘twin’, Av. yə̄ma-, OIr. emuin ‘twins’, emnatar ‘they double’ < IE *jemo-;
- Lat. geminus, -a, -um ‘twin, double’ < IE *gem-;
- Lith. kemerĩs ‘fruit or nut accreted of two’ < IE *kem-.
|
jêzyk
- Pol. jêzyk ‘tongue’, PS *êzy, Pruss. insuwis < IE *n̥ǵhuH-;
- Pol. jêzor < IE *n̥ǵhor-;
- Pol. ozór < IE *aǵhor-;
- Lith. lie¾ùvis, Arm. lezu < IE *leiǵhuH-;
- Ir. ligur < IE *liǵhuH-;
- Lat. lingua < IE *ln̥ǵhuH-;
- Skr. jihvā́ < IE *ǵiǵhuH-;
- Lat. gingīva ‘gum’ < IE *ǵn̥ǵhiHw-;
- Gr. glōkhís, gen. glōkhĩnos ‘tip, tonguelet’, glõtta, glõssa ‘tongue’ < IE *gloHǵhi-;
- Av. hizvā- (f), hizū- (m), Alb. gjúhë < IE *siǵhuH-;
- OLat. dingua, Goth. tuggo, OHG zunga, Germ. Zunge, Engl. tongue < IE *dn̥ǵhuH-;
- OIr. tengae, MWel. tafawt, tauawt < IE *tn̥ǵhwāt-;
- Toch. käntu < IE *ǵn̥dhuH-.
|
kamieñ
- Pol. kamieñ, kamy-k ‘stone’ < IE *kām-;
- OIc. hamarr ‘rock’, Engl. hammer < IE *kam- (*kəm-);
- Lith. akmuõ ‘stone’, Skr. a¶man- ‘stone’, Gr. ákmōn ‘anvil’ < IE *akm-, *aḱm-.
|
*kend-
- Hitt. ḫandai¹, ḫanda¹ ‘heat’, OIr. and- ‘kindle’, Gr. ánthraks ‘coal’ < IE *Handh-;
- Lat. candeō ‘shine’, candor ‘bright light’, candidus ‘bright’, candidātus ‘dressed in white’, candēla ‘candle’, incendō ‘set on fire’, Wel. cann ‘brilliant’, MBret. cann ‘full moon’ < IE *kand(h)-;
- Skr. candrá- ‘brilliant’ < IE *kend-;
- Skr. ¶ā¶ad- ‘excel’, Gr. Dor. kékadmai (Att. kékasmai, perf. of kaínymai) < IE *ḱe-ḱn̥d-;
- Skr. chándas- ‘hymn of praise’, chadáyati ‘it appears’, Alb. hënë ‘moon’ < IE *sḱend-, *sḱond-, *sḱn̥d-;
- Lat. carbō ‘charcoal’ < IE *kardh-;
- Lat. cremō ‘I burn’ < IE *kredhm-.
|
lis
- Pol. lis ‘fox’, Russ. lisa < IE *wleipso- (*wleipḱo-);
- Latv. lapsa < IE *wlopsā- (*wlopḱā-);
- Lith. lãpė, Pruss. lape < IE *wlopjā-;
- Gr. alṓpēks, gen. alṓpekos, < IE *H2loH3pek-;
- Gr. alōpós < IE *H2loH3po-; irreg. Mod.Gr. alepoũ;
- Lat. vulpēs, volpēs, volpēx < IE *wl̥pei-, *wl̥pek- (similar to Germanic name of wolf, *wulfa-, and she-wolf, *wulbjō- as well as Lith. vilpi¹ỹs ‘wild cat’, Middle Persian gurpak, Modern Persian gurba ‘house cat’);
- Skr. lopāka, lopā¶a ‘jackal’ < IE *loupēko-, *loupēḱo-;
- Goth. faúhō ‘fox’ < IE *pukā-;
- Dutch vos, Engl. faws < IE *pus-;
- Eng. fox, vixen (irreg. v-), Germ. Fuchs < IE *puks-.
|
³abêd¼
- Pol. ³abêd¼ ‘swan’ < PS *olbǫdь < IE *olHbond-;
- OPol. also ³abêæ, Czech labu» < PS *olbǫtь < IE *olHbont-;
- Russ. lébed′ < PS *elbedь; OHG albiz, OIc. o̦lptr < PG *elpet-, *alpet- < IE *elHbed-, *olHbed-;
- Lith. balañdis ‘pigeon’ < IE *bolHond-;
- Pol. go³±b ‘pigeon’, Russ. golubój ‘pale blue’, Pruss. golimban ‘blue’, Lith. gelumbė͂ ‘cloth’ < IE *golomb-;
- Lat. columba ‘pigeon’, Gr. kólymbos ‘diving, diver (Colymbus)’ < IE *kolomb-;
- Lat. palumbēs ‘wood pigeon’ < IE *pəlomb-;
- Pers. kabūtar ‘pigeon’ (→ Pruss. keutaris) < IE *kobuH-;
- Lith. gul͂bė, gulbė͂ ‘swan’, Srb-Cr. dial. gūb < IE *gl̥b-;
- Pol. dial. kie³p ‘swan’, Srb-Cr. kup, Russ. dial. kolp′ ‘spoonbill’ < PS *kъlpь < IE *kl̥p-;
- see also bia³y.
|
³gaæ
- Pol. ³gaæ ‘to lie, to tell lies’, Goth. liugan ‘to lie’, laugnjan ‘to deny’, OHG lugî ‘a lie’, OLith. luginaite ‘insidious, treacherous’, OIr. gen.sg. logaissi ‘of a liar’, follugaim ‘I hide’ < IE *leugh-;
- OIc. lokka ‘to deceive’, Lith. lūgóti ‘to ask for’, Latv. lùgti < IE *lug-.
|
mrówka
- Pol. mrówka, ORuss. morovii, Slovene mrávlja, mrȃv < OSlav *morv- < IE *morwi-;
- Russ. muravéj < IE *mourāwi-;
- OIcel. maurr < IE *mouru-;
- Middle Irish moirb < IE *morbhi-;
- Lat. formīca < IE *bhormīk-;
- Gr. mýrmēks < IE *murmāk-;
- Gr. býrmāks < IE *burmāk-;
- Gr. órmikas < IE *ormikə-;
- Av. maorī¹, maoiri- < IE *mourī-;
- Skr. vamra- < IE *womro-.
|
mucha
- Pol. mucha ‘fly’ < IE *mousā (*mouksā);
- Pol. meszka ‘black fly (Simulium)’, mszyca ‘aphid’, Lith. musià, mùsė, musìs < IE *musi-;
- Lat. musca < IE *muksā (*muskā);
- OS muggia ‘gnat’, OHG mucka, OE mycg < IE *mukjā;
- OIc. mý < IE *muHjā;
- Gr. myĩa ‘fly’, Att. mỹa, Mod.Gr. mýga (irreg.) < IE *muHsjā;
- Arm. mun < IE *muHson-;
- perhaps also Lith. mã¹alas ‘gnat’, mãkatas ‘black fly’, Skr. ma¶áka- ‘stable fly (Stomoxys), gnat’ < IE *moḱo-, *moko-;
- Skr. mákṣ-, mákṣā, makṣikā ‘fly, bee’ < IE *moḱso-.
|
naæ
- Pol. naæ ‘leaves and stems of vegetables’, Pruss. noatis ‘nettle’, Lith. natrė͂, nõterė ‘t.s.’, Latv. nâtre ‘t.s.’ < IE *naHt-, *nat- (*nət-);
- Eng. nettle, OE netele, Germ. Nessel, OHG nazza, nezzila < PG *nati- < IE *nəd-.
|
nagi
- Pol. nagi ‘naked’, Lith. núogas, Skr. nagná-, OIr. nocht, Wel. noeth, Lat. nūdus (*nogʷedos), Goth. naqaþs, naqad-, Germ. nackt, Eng. naked, Hitt. nekumant- < IE *nogʷ-, *negʷ-;
- Av. maɣna- < IE *mogʷ-;
- Gr. gymnós < IE *gŏgʷ-;
- Gr. lymnós (Hesychius), OIr. lomm, lommar, Wel. llwm < IE *logʷ-.
|
*nāu-
- Gr. naũs, neõs ‘ship’, Lat. nāvis, Skr. nāu- < IE *nāu-;
- OS naco ‘boat’, OHG nacho, Germ. Nachen, dial. Ache (irreg.) < IE *nag-.
|
paproæ
- Pol. paproæ ‘fern’, Russ. páporot′, Bulg. páprat < IE *pōporəti-;
- OCz. kарrаtiе, Slovak kарrаtiе < IE *kōporəti-;
- Slovak рарrаdiе < IE *pōporəd(h)i-;
- Cz kарrаd < IE *kōporəd(h)i-;
- Lith. papártis < IE *poporəti-;
- Lith. papar̃tis, papartỹs < IE *poporti-;
- Latv. paparde, paparda < IE *poporəd(h)-;
- Latv. paparske, paparkste, paparksts < IE *poport-k-;
- Skr. párpaṭa- ‘a species of medicinal plant (Helyotis, Mollugo)’ < IE *porporto-;
- Gr. ptéris, ptéreōs; pterís, pterídos < IE *pteri-, *pterid-;
- Eng. fern, OE fearn, OHG farn < IE *porno-;
- OHG farm < IE *pormo-;
- Gaul ratis, Ir. raith, Wel. rhedyn, Bret. raden < IE *prəti-.
|
p±æ
- OPol. p±æ ‘way, path’ (cf. Pol. p±tnik ‘pilgrim’), OCS pǫtь, Lat. pons, gen. pontis ‘bridge’, Gr. pátos ‘path’, póntos ‘sea’ (orig. ‘way across the sea’) < IE *pont-, *pn̥t-;
- Engl. path, Germ. Pfad < PG *paþa- < IE *bot-;
- perhaps further related to Eng. foot, Lat. pēs, ped-, Gr. poũs, pod- < IE *pod-, *ped-.
|
pch³a
- Pol. pch³a ‘flea’ (irreg.), OPol. b³eszka, Russ. bloxá < PS *blъxa, Lith. blusà < IE *blusā;
- Alb. plesht, Arm. lu, Skr. plúṣi- < IE *plus-;
- Gr. psýlla, psýllēs < IE *psul-;
- Lat. pūlex < IE *pusl-;
- Arm. low < IE *p(s)lou-;
- Eng. flea, OE fleah < PG *flaux- < IE *p(s)louk-.
|
piê¶æ
- Pol. piê¶æ, Germ. Faust, Eng. fist < PG *funxʷ-sti- < IE *pn̥kʷsti- (cf. Eng. finger < *fungʷ-r-);
- Gr. pygmḗ < IE *pŏgʷm-;
- Lat. pugnus ‘fist’ < IE *pŏgʷn-;
- Lith. kùm¹tis, Pruss. kuntis ‘fist’ < *kūmpstis, Eng. hand < IE *kn̥Hp-sti-, *konp-stu-.
|
p³akaæ
- Pol. p³akaæ ‘to weep’, op³akiwaæ ‘to mourn, to lament’, Lith. plàkti, plakù ‘to whip’, plõkis ‘flogging, a hit with a rod’, Gr. plḗssō < *plākjō ‘I hit’, OIc. flaga ‘sudden attack’, flögra ‘to flutter’, Eng. flaw < *plāk-;
- Gr. plḗgnȳmi ‘I hit’, plēgē ‘a hit’, Lat. plangere ‘to hit’, Goth. flōkan ‘to mourn, to beat one’s breast’, OIc. flóki ‘felt’, flökra ‘to loaf’, Germ. Fluch ‘curse’ < *plāg-.
|
p³uco
- Pol. p³uco ‘lung’, Cz. plíce (pl.), OCS plu¹ta, plju¹ta (pl.), Pruss. plauti, Lith. plaũèiai, Latv. plàu¹as, plàu¹i (and irreg. plaûk¹as, plauk¹i), Gr. pléumōn < IE *plouti-, *pleuti-, *pleumon-;
- Gr. pnéumōn < IE *pneumon-;
- Lat. pulmō < IE *pulmon-;
- Skr. klóman-, kloma- ‘the right lung’ < IE *kʷlou-.
|
*pod-
- Eng. fat, vat, Germ. Fass ‘barrel’, OHG faʒ, ON fat ‘pot, cover, clothes’, PG *fata- ‘pot’, Lith. púodas < IE *podos;
- Lat. pōtus ~ pottus ‘mug, drinking utensil’ < IE *pōtos.
|
*pot-
- Pol. potê¿ny ‘powerful’, Lat. potis ‘powerful’, hospes, gen. hospitis ‘friend, guest, host’, nepōs, gen. nepōtis ‘grandson’, Gr. pósis, póssis ‘spouse’, pótnia ‘mistress, woman ruler’, despótēs ‘master of the house, ruler, possessor’, Skr. pati- ‘spouse, husband’, Lith. pàts ‘spouse, -self’, viẽ¹pats ‘master’ < IE *pot-;
- Pol. gospodarz ‘master of the house, host’, Russ. gospód′ ‘master’ < IE *podh-;
- Gr. despózō ‘to reign, to rule’, népodes ‘progeny, descendants’ < IE *pod-;
- perhaps Pol. pani ‘lady, mistress’ (with -a- according to Winter’s rule before *-d-; cf. Gr. pótnia, déspoina ‘mistress’) < IE *pod-niH.
|
pó³
- Pol. pó³ ‘half’ < IE *pol-;
- Skr. phálati ‘it splits in two’ < IE *pHol-;
- Lat. spolium ‘prey, detached animal skin’ < IE *spol-;
- Eng. half < IE *kolp-.
|
rak
- Gr. karkínos ‘crab’, Skr. karkata ‘astacus’, karka ‘crab’ < IE *kark-;
- Lat. cancer ‘astacus’ < IE *kank-;
- Pol. Russ. rak ‘astacus’ < IE *raHko- or (metathesis) *HarHko-.
|
sarna
- Pol. sarna ‘roe’, Russ. sérna ‘chamois’, ORuth. sьrna ‘roe’, Gr. kárnos ‘breeding animal, sheep’, Lith. ¹érnas ‘wild boar’ < IE *ḱrH2n-;
- Lith. stìrna ‘roe’ < IE *strH2nā.
|
serce
- Pol. serce ‘heart’ < PS sьrdьce, Lith. ¹irdìs, Pruss. seyr, Goth. haírtō, Germ. Herz, Eng. heart, Lat. cor, gen. cordis, OIr. cride, Ir. croidhe, G r. kardía, Hom. kẽr, Arm. sirt, Hitt. karz, kir, gen. kartija¹, Skr. ¶raddhā- ‘confidence, devotion’ < IE *ḱērd-, *ḱrd-, *ḱred-;
- Skr. kārdi- ‘heart’ < IE *krd- (kentum, borrowed?);
- Skr. hr̥d- < IE *ǵhrd-.
|
s³oñce
- Pol. s³oñce < PS *sъlnь-ko < IE *sl̥n-;
- Lat. sōl < IE *swoHl-;
- Gr. hḗlios < IE *sweHl-;
- Gr. Hom. ēélios, Dor. āélios < IE *seHwel-;
- Lith. sáulė, ON sowulo, Swed. sol < IE *souHl-;
- Skr. súvar, gen. sū́ras < IE *suHel- ~ *suHl-;
- Goth. sugil ‘the rune s’, OE syʒel ‘sun’ < IE *sukel-;
- Eng. sun, Germ. Sonne < IE *sn̥n-.
|
swoboda
- Pol. swoboda ‘freedom’, Russ. svobóda ‘freedom, liberty’, ORuth. svobóda ‘liberty’, OCS svobьstvo ‘person’ < PS *svob- < IE *swobh-;
- Pol. osoba ‘person’, OCS sobьstvo ‘t.s.’ < PS *sob- < IE *sobh-;
- OPol. also ¶wieboda ‘freedom’ < PS *svìboda < IE *swēbh-;
- Russ. slobodá ‘settlement of free farmers’, ORuth. slobóda ‘personal liberty, not serfdom’ < PS *sloboda < IE *slobh-;
- Eng. self, Goth. silba ‘alone, by oneself’ < IE *selbh-.
|
syty
- Pol. syty ‘satiated, well-fed’, perh. Hitt. sunnai ‘he fills’ < IE *sūt-;
- perh. Pol. suty ‘lavish, copious’, sowity ‘lavish, ample’ < IE *səut-, *səwīt-;
- Lith. sotùs ‘satiated’, Latv. sãts ‘nutritive’, Goth. sōþ ‘satiation’ < IE *sāt-;
- Lat. satis ‘enough’, satur ‘satiated, full’, Gr. áatos ‘insatiable’, Ir. sathach ‘satiated’ < IE *sət-,
- perh. Gr. hádēn, Ion. ádēn ‘enough’ < IE *səd-.
|
szuja
- Pol. szuja ‘rogue, scoundrel’, OCS ¹ujь ‘left (not right)’, Skr. savya- < IE *seujo-; also Welsh aswy, aseu < IE *adseujo-;
- Gr. skaiós, skaiwós ‘left’, Lat. scaevus, Thrac. skaivas < IE *skaiwo-;
- OIcel. skeika ‘to make a detour’ < IE *skaigo-;
- MHG schiec ‘slanting, contorted’ < IE *skaiko-;
- Germ. schief ‘slanting, contorted’ < IE *skaipo-.
|
¶ledziona
- Pol. ¶ledziona ‘spleen’ < *sledena < IE *seldhen-;
- OPol. ¶leziona, OCS slìzena < †selzen-, OIr. selg < IE *selǵhen-;
- Russ. selezënka, Ukr. selezínka < †sьlezen- < IE *sileǵhen- (†selzen- should yield **solozen-);
- Skr. plīhán-, Av. spərəzan- < IE spl̥Hǵhen-
- Lat. lien < IE spliǵhen-;
- Gr. splḗn (→ Eng. spleen), gen. splēnós < IE *spleHn-;
- Gr. splánkhna ‘intestines’ < IE *splənǵhn-;
- Arm. phaica³n ‘spleen’ < IE *spaiǵaln-;
- Lith. blu¾nìs, Pruss. blusne < IE *bhluǵhn-.
|
¶winia
- Pol. ¶winia ‘pig’, Av. hū (gen.), Alb. thi, Eng. sow, swine, Germ. Sau, Schwein, Toch. B suwo, Gaul. sutegis ‘pigsty’, Lat. sūs ‘pig’, Gr. hỹs < IE *suH-, *suHiH-;
- Skr. sūkara ‘boar’, Pers. xūk < IE *suHk-;
- Lat. sucula ‘young pig’, OE sugu ‘sow’ < IE *suk-,
- Swed. sugga, OIr. soc, socc ‘snout’, Mid.Wel. huch, hwch ‘pig’, Bret. houc’h, PCelt. *sukko- ‘pig’ < IE *sukk-;
- Gr. sỹs with irregular s-.
|
targ
- Pol. targ ‘market place’, Russ. torg ‘market, trade’, Lith. tur̃gus ‘market place’ < PBS *turgus < IE *tr̥gu-;
- Latv. tìrgus < PBS *tirgus < IE *tr̥gu-;
- Venet. Tergéste ‘Triest’, Opitergium, Illyr. tergitio ‘merchant’ < IE *tr̥g-;
- Alb. tregë ‘market place’ < IE *treg-;
- see also gród.
|
twardy
- Pol. twardy ‘hard, tough’, Russ. tvërdyj, Gr. sárdion ‘carneol, a kind of precious stone’, Germ. Quarz ‘quartz’, MHG quarz, PG *þwart- < IE *twr̥d-, *tward-;
- Lith. tvìrtas ‘strong, healthy, hard, durable’, Latv. tvirts ‘strong, hard’ < IE *twr̥Ht-;
- perhaps Lat. dūrus ‘strong, hard’ < IE *duHr-;
- perhaps Goth. hardus ‘hard’, Gr. kratýs ‘strong’ < IE *kr̥tu-.
|
wesz
- Pol. wesz ‘louse’ < IE usi-;
- Eng. louse < IE lūs-;
- Lith. utė͂, Latv. uts < IE uti-;
- Skr. yū́kā < IE jūkā-.
|
woda
- Pol. woda ‘water’, OE wæd ‘water, sea’ < IE *wodhō- (not -d- in Slavic because of Winter’s rule);
- Lat. vadum ‘water, shallow water’ < IE *wado-;
- Gr. hýdōr ‘water’, gen. hýdatos < IE *wŏdōr-, *wŏdnt-;
- Skr. udaká-, gen. udná- < IE *udn-;
- Lat. unda ‘wave’, Latv. ûdens ‘water’ < IE *wn̥dhā-, *wn̥dhō-;
- ON uðr ‘wave’, pl. unnir, OE ýð ‘wave, flood’, OHG undea, PG *unþjō, *unðjō < IE *undhjā-;
- Lith. vanduõ ‘water’ < IE *wondhō-.
|
wó³
- Hitt. *guwau ‘head of cattle, ox, cow’, Toch. A ko, pl. kowi, OIr. bó, Gr. boũs, OHG chuo, kuo, Germ. Kuh, OSwed. kō, Skr. gáuḥ, Av. gāu¹, Arm. kov, Latv. gùovs, Lith. gaujà ‘herd’, gúotas ‘t.s.’, OCS *govędo ‘head of cattle, ox, cow’, gu-mьno ‘barn’, pol. gówno ‘shit’ (orig. ‘cow’s shit’) < IE *gʷouH-, acc. *gʷoHm (cf. Sumer. gu < gud ‘bull’);
- OE cū, Eng. cow, OIcel. kýr < IE *gʷuH-;
- ONord. kvīgr ‘young bull’, Dutch kween < IE *gʷuHiH-;
- Lat. bōs, gen. bovis < IE *bouH- (surely an Oskian loanword);
- OWel. OCorn. buch, NWel. buwch, Bret. buc’h (< *boukkā), maybe Lat. vacca < IE *gʷoukH-;
- Skr. va¶ā ‘cow’, maybe Lat. vacca < IE *weḱH-;
- OCS volъ ‘ox’, gen. volu, Pol. wó³ < IE *wolu- (with alternation *gʷ : w as well as u : l like in w swoboda ~ s³oboda, there exists hypotheses of Uralic or Altaic borrowing).
|
wydra
- Pol. wydra ‘otter’, Lith. údra, Eng. otter, Gr. hydrā ‘water snake’ < IE *udrā (BS *ū before *d due to Winter’s rule);
- Lat. lutra ‘otter’ < IE *lutrā.
|
ziemia
- Pol. ziemia ‘earth, land’, Lat. humus < IE *dhǵhem-, *dhǵhom-;
- Hitt. tekan, Gr. khthṓn, gen. khthonós < IE *dhǵhon-;
- Gr. khamaí ‘on the ground’, Hitt. gimra-, gimmara ‘field, soil’, Skr. gmá -ḥ ‘of earth’ (gen. of kṣā́ḥ) < IE *ǵhĕm-.
|
¿ec
- OPol. ¿ec, ¿gê ‘light a fire’ (cf. Pol. po¿oga ‘conflagration’) < PS *žeg- < IE *gʷhegʷh-;
- Pol. zgaga ‘heartburn’ < PS *-gag- < IE *gʷhōgʷh-;
- Pol. dziegieæ ‘birch tar’, Old Czech dahnìti ‘to smoulder, to glow’ < PS *deg-, *dag-, Lith. dègti ‘to burn’, degùtas ‘birch tar’, dãgas ‘heat, glowing embers’, Old Irish daig ‘fire’, Engl. day, Goth. dags ‘t.s.’, Skr. dáhati ‘burn’, Lat. foveō ‘I heat, I warm up; I nurse’, febris ‘fever’, Gr. téphrā ‘ash’ < IE dhegʷh-, dhōgʷh-.
|
¿o³±dek
- Gr. kholás, gen. kholádos ‘belly’, Pol. ¿o³±dek ‘stomach’ < IE *ghelondo-, *gholn̥d-;
- Lith. skilándis ‘pig stomach’ < IE *skĕlond-;
- Lith. skil͂vis ‘stomach, bird’s crop’, Latv. ¹ķilva ‘hen stomach’ < IE *skl̥w-;
- further connections possible, see g³êboki, gʷelbh-.
|
¿ywy
- Pol. ¿ywy ‘alive’, Lat. vīvus, Gr. bíos ‘life’ < IE *gʷīHʷ-wo-;
- Gr. zõion ‘animal’ < IE *gʷjoHʷ-jo-;
- Eng. quick, Thrac. kik- ‘agile’ < IE *gʷigʷ-jo-.
|
